Martin
Luther
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Martin
Luther
(
10
November
1483
–
18
February
1546
)
was
a
German
priest
and
professor
of
theology
who
initiated
the
Protestant
Reformation
.
He
strongly
disputed
the
claim
that
freedom
from
God
's
punishment
of
sin
could
be
purchased
with
money
.
He
confronted
indulgence
salesman
Johann
Tetzel
with
his
Ninety-Five
Theses
in
1517
.
His
refusal
to
retract
all
of
his
writings
at
the
demand
of
Pope
Leo
X
in
1520
and
the
Holy
Roman
Emperor
Charles
V
at
the
Diet
of
Worms
in
1521
resulted
in
his
excommunication
by
the
pope
and
condemnation
as
an
outlaw
by
the
emperor
.
Luther
taught
that
salvation
is
not
earned
by
good
deeds
but
received
only
as
a
free
gift
of
God
's
grace
through
faith
in
Jesus
Christ
as
redeemer
from
sin
.
His
theology
challenged
the
authority
of
the
pope
of
the
Roman
Catholic
Church
by
teaching
that
the
Bible
is
the
only
source
of
divinely
revealed
knowledge
and
opposed
sacerdotalism
by
considering
all
baptized
Christians
to
be
a
holy
priesthood
.
Those
who
identify
with
Luther
's
teachings
are
called
Lutherans
.
His
translation
of
the
Bible
into
the
language
of
the
people
(
instead
of
Latin
)
made
it
more
accessible
,
causing
a
tremendous
impact
on
the
church
and
on
German
culture
.
It
fostered
the
development
of
a
standard
version
of
the
German
language
,
added
several
principles
to
the
art
of
translation
,
and
influenced
the
translation
into
English
of
the
King
James
Bible
.
His
hymns
influenced
the
development
of
singing
in
churches
.
His
marriage
to
Katharina
von
Bora
set
a
model
for
the
practice
of
clerical
marriage
,
allowing
Protestant
priests
to
marry
.
In
his
later
years
,
while
suffering
from
several
illnesses
and
deteriorating
health
,
Luther
became
increasingly
antisemitic
,
writing
that
Jewish
homes
should
be
destroyed
,
their
synagogues
burned
,
money
confiscated
and
liberty
curtailed
.
These
statements
have
contributed
to
his
controversial
status
.
Table
of
contents
Section
1
Early
life
Section
1
point
1
Birth
and
education
Martin
Luther
was
born
to
Hans
Luder
(
or
Ludher
,
later
Luther
)
and
his
wife
Margarethe
(
née
Lindemann
)
on
10
November
1483
in
Eisleben
,
Germany
,
then
part
of
the
Holy
Roman
Empire
.
He
was
baptized
as
a
Catholic
the
next
morning
on
the
feast
day
of
St.
Martin
of
Tours
.
His
family
moved
to
Mansfeld
in
1484
,
where
his
father
was
a
leaseholder
of
copper
mines
and
smelters
and
served
as
one
of
four
citizen
representatives
on
the
local
council
.
The
religious
scholar
Martin
Marty
describes
Luther
's
mother
as
a
hard-working
woman
of
"
trading-class
stock
and
middling
means
"
and
notes
that
Luther
's
enemies
would
later
wrongly
describe
her
as
a
whore
and
bath
attendant
.
He
had
several
brothers
and
sisters
,
and
is
known
to
have
been
close
to
one
of
them
,
Jacob
.
Hans
Luther
was
ambitious
for
himself
and
his
family
,
and
he
was
determined
to
see
Martin
,
his
eldest
son
,
become
a
lawyer
.
He
sent
Martin
to
Latin
schools
in
Mansfeld
,
then
Magdeburg
in
1497
,
where
he
attended
a
school
operated
by
a
lay
group
called
the
Brethren
of
the
Common
Life
,
and
Eisenach
in
1498
.
The
three
schools
focused
on
the
so-called
"
trivium
"
:
grammar
,
rhetoric
,
and
logic
.
Luther
later
compared
his
education
there
to
purgatory
and
hell
.
In
1501
,
at
the
age
of
nineteen
,
he
entered
the
University
of
Erfurt
–
which
he
later
described
as
a
beerhouse
and
whorehouse
.
The
schedule
called
for
waking
at
four
every
morning
for
what
has
been
described
as
"
a
day
of
rote
learning
and
often
wearying
spiritual
exercises
.
"
He
received
his
master
's
degree
in
1505
.
In
accordance
with
his
father
's
wishes
,
Luther
enrolled
in
law
school
at
the
same
university
that
year
but
dropped
out
almost
immediately
,
believing
that
law
represented
uncertainty
.
Luther
sought
assurances
about
life
and
was
drawn
to
theology
and
philosophy
,
expressing
particular
interest
in
Aristotle
,
William
of
Ockham
,
and
Gabriel
Biel
.
He
was
deeply
influenced
by
two
tutors
,
Bartholomaeus
Arnoldi
von
Usingen
and
Jodocus
Trutfetter
,
who
taught
him
to
be
suspicious
of
even
the
greatest
thinkers
and
to
test
everything
himself
by
experience
.
Philosophy
proved
to
be
unsatisfying
,
offering
assurance
about
the
use
of
reason
but
none
about
loving
God
,
which
to
Luther
was
more
important
.
Reason
could
not
lead
men
to
God
,
he
felt
,
and
he
thereafter
developed
a
love-hate
relationship
with
Aristotle
over
the
latter
's
emphasis
on
reason
.
For
Luther
,
reason
could
be
used
to
question
men
and
institutions
,
but
not
God
.
Human
beings
could
learn
about
God
only
through
divine
revelation
,
he
believed
,
and
Scripture
therefore
became
increasingly
important
to
him
.
He
later
attributed
his
decision
to
an
event
:
on
2
July
1505
,
he
was
on
horseback
during
a
thunderstorm
and
a
lightning
bolt
struck
near
him
as
he
was
returning
to
university
after
a
trip
home
.
Later
telling
his
father
he
was
terrified
of
death
and
divine
judgment
,
he
cried
out
,
"
Help
!
Saint
Anna
,
I
will
become
a
monk
!
"
He
came
to
view
his
cry
for
help
as
a
vow
he
could
never
break
.
He
left
law
school
,
sold
his
books
,
and
entered
a
closed
Augustinian
friary
in
Erfurt
on
17
July
1505
.
One
friend
blamed
the
decision
on
Luther
's
sadness
over
the
deaths
of
two
friends
.
Luther
himself
seemed
saddened
by
the
move
.
Those
who
attended
a
farewell
supper
walked
him
to
the
door
of
the
Black
Cloister
.
"
This
day
you
see
me
,
and
then
,
not
ever
again
,
"
he
said
.
His
father
was
furious
over
what
he
saw
as
a
waste
of
Luther
's
education
.
Section
1
point
2
Monastic
and
academic
life
Luther
dedicated
himself
to
monastic
life
,
devoting
himself
to
fasting
,
long
hours
in
prayer
,
pilgrimage
,
and
frequent
confession
.
He
would
later
remark
,
"
If
anyone
could
have
gained
heaven
as
a
monk
,
then
I
would
indeed
have
been
among
them
.
"
Luther
described
this
period
of
his
life
as
one
of
deep
spiritual
despair
.
He
said
,
"
I
lost
touch
with
Christ
the
Savior
and
Comforter
,
and
made
of
him
the
jailor
and
hangman
of
my
poor
soul
.
"
Johann
von
Staupitz
,
his
superior
,
concluded
that
Luther
needed
more
work
to
distract
him
from
excessive
introspection
and
ordered
him
to
pursue
an
academic
career
.
In
1507
,
he
was
ordained
to
the
priesthood
,
and
in
1508
began
teaching
theology
at
the
University
of
Wittenberg
.
He
received
a
Bachelor
's
degree
in
Biblical
studies
on
9
March
1508
,
and
another
Bachelor
's
degree
in
the
Sentences
by
Peter
Lombard
in
1509
.
On
19
October
1512
,
he
was
awarded
his
Doctor
of
Theology
and
,
on
21
October
1512
,
was
received
into
the
senate
of
the
theological
faculty
of
the
University
of
Wittenberg
,
having
been
called
to
the
position
of
Doctor
in
Bible
.
He
spent
the
rest
of
his
career
in
this
position
at
the
University
of
Wittenberg
.
Section
2
The
start
of
the
Reformation
In
1516–17
,
Johann
Tetzel
,
a
Dominican
friar
and
papal
commissioner
for
indulgences
,
was
sent
to
Germany
by
the
Roman
Catholic
Church
to
sell
indulgences
to
raise
money
to
rebuild
St.
Peter
's
Basilica
in
Rome
.
Roman
Catholic
theology
stated
that
faith
alone
,
whether
fiduciary
or
dogmatic
,
can
not
justify
man
;
and
that
only
such
faith
as
is
active
in
charity
and
good
works
(
fides
caritate
formata
)
can
justify
man
.
The
benefits
of
good
works
could
be
obtained
by
donating
money
to
the
church
.
On
31
October
1517
,
Luther
wrote
to
his
bishop
,
Albert
of
Mainz
,
protesting
the
sale
of
indulgences
.
He
enclosed
in
his
letter
a
copy
of
his
"
Disputation
of
Martin
Luther
on
the
Power
and
Efficacy
of
Indulgences
,
"
which
came
to
be
known
as
The
Ninety-Five
Theses
.
Hans
Hillerbrand
writes
that
Luther
had
no
intention
of
confronting
the
church
,
but
saw
his
disputation
as
a
scholarly
objection
to
church
practices
,
and
the
tone
of
the
writing
is
accordingly
"
searching
,
rather
than
doctrinaire
.
"
Hillerbrand
writes
that
there
is
nevertheless
an
undercurrent
of
challenge
in
several
of
the
theses
,
particularly
in
Thesis
86
,
which
asks
:
"
Why
does
the
pope
,
whose
wealth
today
is
greater
than
the
wealth
of
the
richest
Crassus
,
build
the
basilica
of
St.
Peter
with
the
money
of
poor
believers
rather
than
with
his
own
money
?
"
Luther
objected
to
a
saying
attributed
to
Johann
Tetzel
that
"
As
soon
as
the
coin
in
the
coffer
rings
,
the
soul
from
purgatory
[
also
attested
as
'
into
heaven
'
]
springs
.
"
He
insisted
that
,
since
forgiveness
was
God
's
alone
to
grant
,
those
who
claimed
that
indulgences
absolved
buyers
from
all
punishments
and
granted
them
salvation
were
in
error
.
Christians
,
he
said
,
must
not
slacken
in
following
Christ
on
account
of
such
false
assurances
.
However
,
this
oft-quoted
saying
of
Tetzel
was
by
no
means
representative
of
the
official
Catholic
teaching
on
indulgences
,
but
rather
,
more
a
reflection
of
his
capacity
to
exaggerate
.
Yet
if
Tetzel
overstated
the
matter
in
regard
to
indulgences
for
the
dead
,
his
teaching
on
indulgences
for
the
living
was
pure
.
According
to
scholars
Walter
Krämer
,
Götz
Trenkler
,
Gerhard
Ritter
and
Gerhard
Prause
,
the
story
of
the
posting
on
the
door
,
even
though
it
has
settled
as
one
of
the
pillars
of
history
,
has
little
foundation
in
truth
.
In
his
preface
to
the
posthumous
second
pressing
of
Luther
’s
compiled
work
,
humanist
and
reformist
Philipp
Melanchthon
writes
"
reportedly
,
Luther
,
burning
with
passion
and
just
devoutness
,
posted
the
Ninety-Five
Theses
at
the
Castle
Church
in
Wittenberg
,
Germany
at
All
Saints
Eve
,
October
31
"
(
Old
calendar
)
.
At
the
time
he
wrote
the
preface
,
Melanchthon
lived
in
Tübingen
,
far
from
Wittenberg
.
In
the
preface
,
Melanchthon
presents
more
untrue
assertions
:
that
indulgence
salesman
Johann
Tetzel
publicly
burned
Luther
’s
Ninety-Five
Theses
,
that
Luther
held
colleges
on
nature
and
physics
,
and
that
Luther
had
visited
Rome
in
1511
.
For
a
professor
of
the
Wittenberg
University
to
post
theses
on
doors
is
unparalleled
in
history
.
Even
further
,
Luther
was
strongly
law
abiding
and
it
would
have
been
against
his
character
to
publish
his
thoughts
and
direction
in
this
manner
.
Moreover
,
Luther
never
mentioned
anything
in
this
direction
in
his
writings
,
and
the
only
contemporary
account
of
the
publishing
of
the
theses
is
the
Latin
account
by
his
servant
Johannes
Agricola
,
who
states
that
Luther
presents
"
certain
theses
in
the
year
of
1517
according
to
the
customs
of
University
of
Wittenberg
as
part
of
a
scientific
discussion
.
The
presentation
of
the
theses
was
done
in
a
modest
and
respectful
way
,
preventing
to
mock
or
insult
anybody
"
.
[
citation
needed
]
He
makes
no
mention
of
nailing
the
theses
to
a
door
,
nor
does
any
other
source
report
this
.
In
actuality
,
Luther
presented
a
hand-written
copy
,
accompanied
with
honorable
comments
to
the
archbishop
Albrecht
of
Mainz
and
Magdeburg
,
responsible
for
the
practice
of
the
indulgence
sales
,
and
to
the
bishop
of
Brandenburg
,
Luther
's
superior
.
It
was
n’t
until
January
1518
that
friends
of
Luther
translated
the
95
Theses
from
Latin
into
German
,
printed
,
and
widely
copied
,
making
the
controversy
one
of
the
first
in
history
to
be
aided
by
the
printing
press
.
Within
two
weeks
,
copies
of
the
theses
had
spread
throughout
Germany
;
within
two
months
throughout
Europe
.
Luther
's
writings
circulated
widely
,
reaching
France
,
England
,
and
Italy
as
early
as
1519
.
Students
thronged
to
Wittenberg
to
hear
Luther
speak
.
He
published
a
short
commentary
on
Galatians
and
his
Work
on
the
Psalms
.
This
early
part
of
Luther
's
career
was
one
of
his
most
creative
and
productive
.
Three
of
his
best-known
works
were
published
in
1520
:
To
the
Christian
Nobility
of
the
German
Nation
,
On
the
Babylonian
Captivity
of
the
Church
,
and
On
the
Freedom
of
a
Christian
.
Section
2
point
1
Justification
by
faith
From
1510
to
1520
,
Luther
lectured
on
the
Psalms
,
the
books
of
Hebrews
,
Romans
,
and
Galatians
.
As
he
studied
these
portions
of
the
Bible
,
he
came
to
view
the
use
of
terms
such
as
penance
and
righteousness
by
the
Catholic
Church
in
new
ways
.
He
became
convinced
that
the
church
was
corrupt
in
its
ways
and
had
lost
sight
of
what
he
saw
as
several
of
the
central
truths
of
Christianity
.
The
most
important
for
Luther
was
the
doctrine
of
justification
–
God
's
act
of
declaring
a
sinner
righteous
–
by
faith
alone
through
God
's
grace
.
He
began
to
teach
that
salvation
or
redemption
is
a
gift
of
God
's
grace
,
attainable
only
through
faith
in
Jesus
as
the
Messiah
.
"
This
one
and
firm
rock
,
which
we
call
the
doctrine
of
justification
,
"
he
wrote
,
"
is
the
chief
article
of
the
whole
Christian
doctrine
,
which
comprehends
the
understanding
of
all
godliness
.
"
Luther
came
to
understand
justification
as
entirely
the
work
of
God
.
This
teaching
by
Luther
was
clearly
expressed
in
his
1525
publication
On
the
Bondage
of
the
Will
,
which
was
written
in
response
to
On
Free
Will
by
Desiderius
Erasmus
(
1524
)
.
Luther
based
his
position
on
Predestination
on
St.
Paul
's
epistle
to
the
Ephesians
2:8–10
.
Against
the
teaching
of
his
day
that
the
righteous
acts
of
believers
are
performed
in
cooperation
with
God
,
Luther
wrote
that
Christians
receive
such
righteousness
entirely
from
outside
themselves
;
that
righteousness
not
only
comes
from
Christ
but
actually
is
the
righteousness
of
Christ
,
imputed
to
Christians
(
rather
than
infused
into
them
)
through
faith
.
"
That
is
why
faith
alone
makes
someone
just
and
fulfills
the
law
,
"
he
wrote
.
"
Faith
is
that
which
brings
the
Holy
Spirit
through
the
merits
of
Christ
.
"
Faith
,
for
Luther
,
was
a
gift
from
God
;
the
experience
of
being
justified
by
faith
was
"
as
though
I
had
been
born
again
.
"
His
entry
into
Paradise
,
no
less
,
was
a
discovery
about
"
the
righteousness
of
God
"
–
a
discovery
that
"
the
just
person
"
of
whom
the
Bible
speaks
(
as
in
Romans
1:17
)
lives
by
faith
.
He
explained
his
concept
of
"
justification
"
in
the
Smalcald
Articles
:
Section
2
point
2
Breach
with
the
papacy
Archbishop
Albrecht
of
Mainz
and
Magdeburg
did
not
reply
to
Luther
's
letter
containing
the
95
Theses
.
He
had
the
theses
checked
for
heresy
and
in
December
1517
forwarded
them
to
Rome
.
He
needed
the
revenue
from
the
indulgences
to
pay
off
a
papal
dispensation
for
his
tenure
of
more
than
one
bishopric
.
As
Luther
later
noted
,
"
the
pope
had
a
finger
in
the
pie
as
well
,
because
one
half
was
to
go
to
the
building
of
St
Peter
's
Church
in
Rome
"
.
Pope
Leo
X
was
used
to
reformers
and
heretics
,
and
he
responded
slowly
,
"
with
great
care
as
is
proper
.
"
Over
the
next
three
years
he
deployed
a
series
of
papal
theologians
and
envoys
against
Luther
,
which
only
served
to
harden
the
reformer
's
anti-papal
theology
.
First
,
the
Dominican
theologian
Sylvester
Mazzolini
drafted
a
heresy
case
against
Luther
,
whom
Leo
then
summoned
to
Rome
.
The
Elector
Frederick
persuaded
the
pope
to
have
Luther
examined
at
Augsburg
,
where
the
Imperial
Diet
was
held
.
There
,
in
October
1518
,
Luther
informed
the
papal
legate
Cardinal
Cajetan
that
he
did
not
consider
the
papacy
part
of
the
biblical
Church
,
and
the
hearings
degenerated
into
a
shouting
match
.
More
than
his
writing
the
95
Theses
,
Luther
's
confrontation
of
the
church
cast
him
as
an
enemy
of
the
pope
.
Cajetan
's
original
instructions
had
been
to
arrest
Luther
if
he
failed
to
recant
,
but
he
lacked
the
means
in
Augsburg
,
where
the
Elector
guaranteed
Luther
's
security
.
Luther
slipped
out
of
the
city
at
night
,
without
leave
from
Cajetan
.
In
January
1519
,
at
Altenburg
in
Saxony
,
the
papal
nuncio
Karl
von
Miltitz
adopted
a
more
conciliatory
approach
.
Luther
made
certain
concessions
to
the
Saxon
,
who
was
a
relative
of
the
Elector
,
and
promised
to
remain
silent
if
his
opponents
did
.
The
theologian
Johann
Maier
von
Eck
,
however
,
was
determined
to
expose
Luther
's
doctrine
in
a
public
forum
.
In
June
and
July
1519
,
he
staged
a
disputation
with
Luther
's
colleague
Andreas
Karlstadt
at
Leipzig
and
invited
Luther
to
speak
.
Luther
's
boldest
assertion
in
the
debate
was
that
Matthew
16:18
does
not
confer
on
popes
the
exclusive
right
to
interpret
scripture
,
and
that
therefore
neither
popes
nor
church
councils
were
infallible
.
For
this
,
Eck
branded
Luther
a
new
Jan
Hus
,
referring
to
the
Czech
reformer
and
heretic
burned
at
the
stake
in
1415
.
From
that
moment
,
he
devoted
himself
to
Luther
's
defeat
.
Section
2
point
3
Excommunication
On
15
June
1520
,
the
Pope
warned
Luther
with
the
papal
bull
(
edict
)
Exsurge
Domine
that
he
risked
excommunication
unless
he
recanted
41
sentences
drawn
from
his
writings
,
including
the
95
Theses
,
within
60
days
.
That
autumn
,
Johann
Eck
proclaimed
the
bull
in
Meissen
and
other
towns
.
Karl
von
Miltitz
,
a
papal
nuncio
,
attempted
to
broker
a
solution
,
but
Luther
,
who
had
sent
the
Pope
a
copy
of
On
the
Freedom
of
a
Christian
in
October
,
publicly
set
fire
to
the
bull
and
decretals
at
Wittenberg
on
10
December
1520
,
an
act
he
defended
in
Why
the
Pope
and
his
Recent
Book
are
Burned
and
Assertions
Concerning
All
Articles
.
As
a
consequence
,
Luther
was
excommunicated
by
Pope
Leo
X
on
3
January
1521
,
in
the
bull
Decet
Romanum
Pontificem
.
Section
3
Diet
of
Worms
The
enforcement
of
the
ban
on
the
95
Theses
fell
to
the
secular
authorities
.
On
18
April
1521
,
Luther
appeared
as
ordered
before
the
Diet
of
Worms
.
This
was
a
general
assembly
of
the
estates
of
the
Holy
Roman
Empire
that
took
place
in
Worms
,
a
town
on
the
Rhine
.
It
was
conducted
from
28
January
to
25
May
1521
,
with
Emperor
Charles
V
presiding
.
Prince
Frederick
III
,
Elector
of
Saxony
,
obtained
a
safe
conduct
for
Luther
to
and
from
the
meeting
.
Johann
Eck
,
speaking
on
behalf
of
the
Empire
as
assistant
of
the
Archbishop
of
Trier
,
presented
Luther
with
copies
of
his
writings
laid
out
on
a
table
and
asked
him
if
the
books
were
his
,
and
whether
he
stood
by
their
contents
.
Luther
confirmed
he
was
their
author
,
but
requested
time
to
think
about
the
answer
to
the
second
question
.
He
prayed
,
consulted
friends
,
and
gave
his
response
the
next
day
:
Luther
is
sometimes
also
quoted
as
saying
:
"
Here
I
stand
.
I
can
do
no
other
"
.
Recent
scholars
consider
the
evidence
for
these
words
to
be
unreliable
,
since
they
were
inserted
before
"
May
God
help
me
"
only
in
later
versions
of
the
speech
and
not
recorded
in
witness
accounts
of
the
proceedings
.
Over
the
next
five
days
,
private
conferences
were
held
to
determine
Luther
's
fate
.
The
Emperor
presented
the
final
draft
of
the
Diet
of
Worms
on
25
May
1521
,
declaring
Luther
an
outlaw
,
banning
his
literature
,
and
requiring
his
arrest
:
"
We
want
him
to
be
apprehended
and
punished
as
a
notorious
heretic
.
"
It
also
made
it
a
crime
for
anyone
in
Germany
to
give
Luther
food
or
shelter
.
It
permitted
anyone
to
kill
Luther
without
legal
consequence
.
Section
4
At
Wartburg
Castle
Luther
's
disappearance
during
his
return
trip
was
planned
.
Frederick
III
,
Elector
of
Saxony
had
him
intercepted
on
his
way
home
by
masked
horsemen
and
escorted
to
the
security
of
the
Wartburg
Castle
at
Eisenach
.
During
his
stay
at
Wartburg
,
which
he
referred
to
as
"
my
Patmos
"
,
Luther
translated
the
New
Testament
from
Greek
into
German
and
poured
out
doctrinal
and
polemical
writings
.
These
included
a
renewed
attack
on
Archbishop
Albrecht
of
Mainz
,
whom
he
shamed
into
halting
the
sale
of
indulgences
in
his
episcopates
,
and
a
"
Refutation
of
the
Argument
of
Latomus
,
"
in
which
he
expounded
the
principle
of
justification
to
Jacobus
Latomus
,
an
orthodox
theologian
from
Louvain
.
In
this
work
,
one
of
his
most
emphatic
statements
on
faith
,
he
argued
that
every
good
work
designed
to
attract
God
's
favor
is
a
sin
.
All
humans
are
sinners
by
nature
,
he
explained
,
and
God
's
grace
,
which
can
not
be
earned
,
alone
can
make
them
just
.
On
1
August
1521
,
Luther
wrote
to
Melanchthon
on
the
same
theme
:
"
Be
a
sinner
,
and
let
your
sins
be
strong
,
but
let
your
trust
in
Christ
be
stronger
,
and
rejoice
in
Christ
who
is
the
victor
over
sin
,
death
,
and
the
world
.
We
will
commit
sins
while
we
are
here
,
for
this
life
is
not
a
place
where
justice
resides
.
"
In
the
summer
of
1521
,
Luther
widened
his
target
from
individual
pieties
like
indulgences
and
pilgrimages
to
doctrines
at
the
heart
of
Church
practices
.
In
On
the
Abrogation
of
the
Private
Mass
,
he
condemned
as
idolatry
the
idea
that
the
mass
is
a
sacrifice
,
asserting
instead
that
it
is
a
gift
,
to
be
received
with
thanksgiving
by
the
whole
congregation
.
His
essay
On
Confession
,
Whether
the
Pope
has
the
Power
to
Require
It
rejected
compulsory
confession
and
encouraged
private
confession
and
absolution
,
since
"
every
Christian
is
a
confessor
.
"
In
November
,
Luther
wrote
The
Judgement
of
Martin
Luther
on
Monastic
Vows
.
He
assured
monks
and
nuns
that
they
could
break
their
vows
without
sin
,
because
vows
were
an
illegitimate
and
vain
attempt
to
win
salvation
.
Luther
made
his
pronouncements
from
Wartburg
in
the
context
of
rapid
developments
at
Wittenberg
,
of
which
he
was
kept
fully
informed
.
Andreas
Karlstadt
,
supported
by
the
ex-Augustinian
Gabriel
Zwilling
,
embarked
on
a
radical
programme
of
reform
there
in
June
1521
,
exceeding
anything
envisaged
by
Luther
.
The
reforms
provoked
disturbances
,
including
a
revolt
by
the
Augustinian
monks
against
their
prior
,
the
smashing
of
statues
and
images
in
churches
,
and
denunciations
of
the
magistracy
.
After
secretly
visiting
Wittenberg
in
early
December
1521
,
Luther
wrote
A
Sincere
Admonition
by
Martin
Luther
to
All
Christians
to
Guard
Against
Insurrection
and
Rebellion
.
Wittenberg
became
even
more
volatile
after
Christmas
when
a
band
of
visionary
zealots
,
the
so-called
Zwickau
prophets
,
arrived
,
preaching
revolutionary
doctrines
such
as
the
equality
of
man
,
adult
baptism
,
and
Christ
's
imminent
return
.
When
the
town
council
asked
Luther
to
return
,
he
decided
it
was
his
duty
to
act
.
Section
5
Return
to
Wittenberg
Luther
secretly
returned
to
Wittenberg
on
6
March
1522
.
"
During
my
absence
,
"
he
wrote
to
the
Elector
,
"
Satan
has
entered
my
sheepfold
,
and
committed
ravages
which
I
can
not
repair
by
writing
,
but
only
by
my
personal
presence
and
living
word
.
"
For
eight
days
in
Lent
,
beginning
on
Invocavit
Sunday
,
9
March
,
Luther
preached
eight
sermons
,
which
became
known
as
the
"
Invocavit
Sermons
.
"
In
these
sermons
,
he
hammered
home
the
primacy
of
core
Christian
values
such
as
love
,
patience
,
charity
,
and
freedom
,
and
reminded
the
citizens
to
trust
God
's
word
rather
than
violence
to
bring
about
necessary
change
.
The
effect
of
Luther
's
intervention
was
immediate
.
After
the
sixth
sermon
,
the
Wittenberg
jurist
Jerome
Schurf
wrote
to
the
elector
:
"
Oh
,
what
joy
has
Dr.
Martin
’s
return
spread
among
us
!
His
words
,
through
divine
mercy
,
are
bringing
back
every
day
misguided
people
into
the
way
of
the
truth
.
"
Luther
next
set
about
reversing
or
modifying
the
new
church
practices
.
By
working
alongside
the
authorities
to
restore
public
order
,
he
signalled
his
reinvention
as
a
conservative
force
within
the
Reformation
.
After
banishing
the
Zwickau
prophets
,
he
now
faced
a
battle
not
only
against
the
established
Church
but
against
radical
reformers
who
threatened
the
new
order
by
fomenting
social
unrest
and
violence
.
Section
6
Peasants
'
War
Despite
his
victory
in
Wittenberg
,
Luther
was
unable
to
stifle
radicalism
further
afield
.
Preachers
such
as
Zwickau
prophet
Nicholas
Storch
and
Thomas
Müntzer
helped
instigate
the
German
Peasants
'
War
of
1524–25
,
during
which
many
atrocities
were
committed
,
often
in
Luther
's
name
.
There
had
been
revolts
by
the
peasantry
on
a
smaller
scale
since
the
15th
century
.
Luther
's
pamphlets
against
the
Church
and
the
hierarchy
,
often
worded
with
"
liberal
"
phraseology
,
now
led
many
peasants
to
believe
he
would
support
an
attack
on
the
upper
classes
in
general
.
Revolts
broke
out
in
Franconia
,
Swabia
,
and
Thuringia
in
1524
,
even
drawing
support
from
disaffected
nobles
,
many
of
whom
were
in
debt
.
Gaining
momentum
under
the
leadership
of
radicals
such
as
Müntzer
in
Thuringia
and
Michael
Gaismair
in
Tyrol
,
the
revolts
turned
into
war
.
Luther
sympathised
with
some
of
the
peasants
'
grievances
,
as
he
showed
in
his
response
to
the
Twelve
Articles
in
May
1525
,
but
he
reminded
the
aggrieved
to
obey
the
temporal
authorities
.
During
a
tour
of
Thuringia
,
he
became
enraged
at
the
widespread
burning
of
convents
,
monasteries
,
bishops
’
palaces
,
and
libraries
.
In
Against
the
Murderous
,
Thieving
Hordes
of
Peasants
,
written
on
his
return
to
Wittenberg
,
he
explained
the
Gospel
teaching
on
wealth
,
condemned
the
violence
as
the
devil
's
work
,
and
called
for
the
nobles
to
put
down
the
rebels
like
mad
dogs
:
Luther
justified
his
opposition
to
the
rebels
on
three
grounds
.
First
,
in
choosing
violence
over
lawful
submission
to
the
secular
government
,
they
were
ignoring
Christ
's
counsel
to
"
Render
unto
Caesar
the
things
that
are
Caesar
's
"
;
St.
Paul
had
written
in
his
epistle
to
the
Romans
13:1–7
that
all
authorities
are
appointed
by
God
and
therefore
should
not
be
resisted
.
This
reference
from
the
Bible
forms
the
foundation
for
the
doctrine
known
as
the
Divine
Right
of
Kings
,
or
,
in
the
German
case
,
the
divine
right
of
the
princes
.
Second
,
the
violent
actions
of
rebelling
,
robbing
,
and
plundering
placed
the
peasants
"
outside
the
law
of
God
and
Empire
,
"
so
they
deserved
"
death
in
body
and
soul
,
if
only
as
highwaymen
and
murderers
.
"
Lastly
,
Luther
charged
the
rebels
with
blasphemy
for
calling
themselves
"
Christian
brethren
"
and
committing
their
sinful
acts
under
the
banner
of
the
Gospel
.
Without
Luther
's
backing
for
the
uprising
,
many
rebels
laid
down
their
weapons
;
others
felt
betrayed
.
Their
defeat
by
the
Swabian
League
at
the
Battle
of
Frankenhausen
on
15
May
1525
,
followed
by
Müntzer
’s
execution
,
brought
the
revolutionary
stage
of
the
Reformation
to
a
close
.
Thereafter
,
radicalism
found
a
refuge
in
the
anabaptist
movement
and
other
sects
,
while
Luther
's
Reformation
flourished
under
the
wing
of
the
secular
powers
.
Section
7
Marriage
Martin
Luther
married
Katharina
von
Bora
,
one
of
12
nuns
he
had
helped
escape
from
the
Nimbschen
Cistercian
convent
in
April
1523
,
when
he
arranged
for
them
to
be
smuggled
out
in
herring
barrels
.
"
Suddenly
,
and
while
I
was
occupied
with
far
different
thoughts
,
"
he
wrote
to
Wenceslaus
Link
,
"
the
Lord
has
plunged
me
into
marriage
.
"
Katherina
was
26
years
old
,
Luther
was
41
years
old
.
On
13
June
1525
,
the
couple
was
engaged
with
Johannes
Bugenhagen
,
Justus
Jonas
,
Johannes
Apel
,
Philipp
Melanchthon
and
Lucas
Cranach
the
Elder
and
his
wife
as
witnesses
.
On
the
evening
of
the
same
day
,
the
couple
was
married
by
Bugenhagen
.
The
ceremonial
walk
to
the
church
and
the
wedding
banquet
were
left
out
,
and
were
made
up
two
weeks
later
on
27
June
.
Some
priests
and
former
monks
had
already
married
,
including
Andreas
Karlstadt
and
Justus
Jonas
,
but
Luther
's
wedding
set
the
seal
of
approval
on
clerical
marriage
.
He
had
long
condemned
vows
of
celibacy
on
Biblical
grounds
,
but
his
decision
to
marry
surprised
many
,
not
least
Melanchthon
,
who
called
it
reckless
.
Luther
had
written
to
George
Spalatin
on
30
November
1524
,
"
I
shall
never
take
a
wife
,
as
I
feel
at
present
.
Not
that
I
am
insensible
to
my
flesh
or
sex
(
for
I
am
neither
wood
nor
stone
)
;
but
my
mind
is
averse
to
wedlock
because
I
daily
expect
the
death
of
a
heretic
.
"
Before
marrying
,
Luther
had
been
living
on
the
plainest
food
,
and
,
as
he
admitted
himself
,
his
mildewed
bed
was
not
properly
made
for
months
at
a
time
.
Luther
and
his
wife
moved
into
a
former
monastery
,
"
The
Black
Cloister
,
"
a
wedding
present
from
the
new
elector
John
the
Steadfast
(1525–32
)
.
They
embarked
on
what
appeared
to
have
been
a
happy
and
successful
marriage
,
though
money
was
often
short
.
Between
bearing
six
children
,
Hans
–
June
1526
,
Elizabeth
–
10
December
1527
died
within
a
few
months
,
Magdalene
–
1529
died
in
Luthers
arms
in
1542
,
Martin
–
1531
,
Paul
–
January
1533
,
and
Margaret
–
1534
,
Katharina
helped
earn
the
couple
a
living
by
farming
the
land
and
taking
in
boarders
.
Luther
confided
to
Michael
Stiefel
on
11
August
1526
:
"
My
Katie
is
in
all
things
so
obliging
and
pleasing
to
me
that
I
would
not
exchange
my
poverty
for
the
riches
of
Croesus
.
"
Section
8
Organising
the
church
By
1526
,
Luther
found
himself
increasingly
occupied
in
organising
a
new
church
.
His
Biblical
ideal
of
congregations
'
choosing
their
own
ministers
had
proved
unworkable
.
According
to
Bainton
:
"
Luther
's
dilemma
was
that
he
wanted
both
a
confessional
church
based
on
personal
faith
and
experience
and
a
territorial
church
including
all
in
a
given
locality
.
If
he
were
forced
to
choose
,
he
would
take
his
stand
with
the
masses
,
and
this
was
the
direction
in
which
he
moved
.
"
From
1525
to
1529
,
he
established
a
supervisory
church
body
,
laid
down
a
new
form
of
worship
service
,
and
wrote
a
clear
summary
of
the
new
faith
in
the
form
of
two
catechisms
.
To
avoid
confusing
or
upsetting
the
people
,
Luther
avoided
extreme
change
.
He
also
did
not
wish
to
replace
one
controlling
system
with
another
.
He
concentrated
on
the
church
in
the
Electorate
of
Saxony
,
acting
only
as
an
adviser
to
churches
in
new
territories
,
many
of
which
followed
his
Saxon
model
.
He
worked
closely
with
the
new
elector
,
John
the
Steadfast
,
to
whom
he
turned
for
secular
leadership
and
funds
on
behalf
of
a
church
largely
shorn
of
its
assets
and
income
after
the
break
with
Rome
.
For
Luther
's
biographer
Martin
Brecht
,
this
partnership
"
was
the
beginning
of
a
questionable
and
originally
unintended
development
towards
a
church
government
under
the
temporal
sovereign
"
.
The
elector
authorised
a
visitation
of
the
church
,
a
power
formerly
exercised
by
bishops
.
At
times
,
Luther
's
practical
reforms
fell
short
of
his
earlier
radical
pronouncements
.
For
example
,
the
Instructions
for
the
Visitors
of
Parish
Pastors
in
Electoral
Saxony
(
1528
)
,
drafted
by
Melanchthon
with
Luther
's
approval
,
stressed
the
role
of
repentance
in
the
forgiveness
of
sins
,
despite
Luther
's
position
that
faith
alone
ensures
justification
.
The
Eisleben
reformer
Johannes
Agricola
challenged
this
compromise
,
and
Luther
condemned
him
for
teaching
that
faith
is
separate
from
works
.
The
Instruction
is
a
problematic
document
for
those
seeking
a
consistent
evolution
in
Luther
's
thought
and
practice
.
In
response
to
demands
for
a
German
liturgy
,
Luther
wrote
a
German
Mass
,
which
he
published
in
early
1526
.
He
did
not
intend
it
as
a
replacement
for
his
1523
adaptation
of
the
Latin
Mass
but
as
an
alternative
for
the
"
simple
people
"
,
a
"
public
stimulation
for
people
to
believe
and
become
Christians
.
"
Luther
based
his
order
on
the
Catholic
service
but
omitted
"
everything
that
smacks
of
sacrifice
"
;
and
the
Mass
became
a
celebration
where
everyone
received
the
wine
as
well
as
the
bread
.
He
retained
the
elevation
of
the
host
and
chalice
,
while
trappings
such
as
the
Mass
vestments
,
altar
,
and
candles
were
made
optional
,
allowing
freedom
of
ceremony
.
Some
reformers
,
including
followers
of
Huldrych
Zwingli
,
considered
Luther
's
service
too
papistic
;
and
modern
scholars
note
the
conservatism
of
his
alternative
to
the
Catholic
mass
.
Luther
's
service
,
however
,
included
congregational
singing
of
hymns
and
psalms
in
German
,
as
well
as
of
parts
of
the
liturgy
,
including
Luther
's
unison
setting
of
the
Creed
.
To
reach
the
simple
people
and
the
young
,
Luther
incorporated
religious
instruction
into
the
weekday
services
in
the
form
of
the
catechism
.
He
also
provided
simplified
versions
of
the
baptism
and
marriage
services
.
Luther
and
his
colleagues
introduced
the
new
order
of
worship
during
their
visitation
of
Electoral
Saxony
,
which
began
in
1527
.
They
also
assessed
the
standard
of
pastoral
care
and
Christian
education
in
the
territory
.
"
Merciful
God
,
what
misery
I
have
seen
,
"
Luther
wrote
,
"
the
common
people
knowing
nothing
at
all
of
Christian
doctrine
...
and
unfortunately
many
pastors
are
well-nigh
unskilled
and
incapable
of
teaching
.
"
Section
8
point
1
Catechisms
Luther
devised
the
catechism
as
a
method
of
imparting
the
basics
of
Christianity
to
the
congregations
.
In
1529
,
he
wrote
the
Large
Catechism
,
a
manual
for
pastors
and
teachers
,
as
well
as
a
synopsis
,
the
Small
Catechism
,
to
be
memorised
by
the
people
themselves
.
The
catechisms
provided
easy-to-understand
instructional
and
devotional
material
on
the
Ten
Commandments
,
the
Apostles
'
Creed
,
the
Lord
's
Prayer
,
baptism
,
and
the
Lord
's
Supper
.
Luther
incorporated
questions
and
answers
in
the
catechism
so
that
the
basics
of
Christian
faith
would
not
just
be
learned
by
rote
,
"
the
way
monkeys
do
it
"
,
but
understood
.
The
catechism
is
one
of
Luther
's
most
personal
works
.
"
Regarding
the
plan
to
collect
my
writings
in
volumes
,
"
he
wrote
,
"
I
am
quite
cool
and
not
at
all
eager
about
it
because
,
roused
by
a
Saturnian
hunger
,
I
would
rather
see
them
all
devoured
.
For
I
acknowledge
none
of
them
to
be
really
a
book
of
mine
,
except
perhaps
the
Bondage
of
the
Will
and
the
Catechism
.
"
The
Small
Catechism
has
earned
a
reputation
as
a
model
of
clear
religious
teaching
.
It
remains
in
use
today
,
along
with
Luther
's
hymns
and
his
translation
of
the
Bible
.
Luther
's
Small
Catechism
proved
especially
effective
in
helping
parents
teach
their
children
;
likewise
the
Larger
Catechism
was
effective
for
pastors
.
Using
the
German
vernacular
they
expressed
the
Apostles
'
Creed
in
simpler
,
more
personal
,
Trinitarian
language
.
He
rewrote
each
article
of
the
Creed
to
express
the
character
of
the
Father
,
the
Son
,
or
the
Holy
Spirit
.
Luther
's
goal
was
to
enable
the
catechumens
to
see
themselves
as
a
personal
object
of
the
work
of
the
three
persons
of
the
Trinity
,
each
of
which
works
in
the
catechumen
's
life
.
That
is
,
Luther
depicted
the
Trinity
not
as
a
doctrine
to
be
learned
,
but
as
persons
to
be
known
.
The
Father
creates
,
the
Son
redeems
,
and
the
Spirit
sanctifies
,
a
divine
unity
with
separate
personalities
.
Salvation
originates
with
the
Father
and
draws
the
believer
to
the
Father
.
Luther
's
treatment
of
the
Apostles
Creed
must
be
understood
in
the
context
of
the
Decalogue
(
the
Ten
Commandments
)
and
the
Lord
's
Prayer
,
which
are
also
part
of
the
Lutheran
catechical
teaching
.
Section
9
Translation
of
the
Bible
Luther
had
published
his
German
translation
of
the
New
Testament
in
1522
,
and
he
and
his
collaborators
completed
the
translation
of
the
Old
Testament
in
1534
,
when
the
whole
Bible
was
published
.
He
continued
to
work
on
refining
the
translation
until
the
end
of
his
life
.
Others
had
translated
the
Bible
into
German
,
but
Luther
tailored
his
translation
to
his
own
doctrine
.
When
he
was
criticised
for
inserting
the
word
"
alone
"
after
"
faith
"
in
Romans
3:28
,
he
replied
in
part
:
"
[
T
]
he
text
itself
and
the
meaning
of
St.
Paul
urgently
require
and
demand
it
.
For
in
that
very
passage
he
is
dealing
with
the
main
point
of
Christian
doctrine
,
namely
,
that
we
are
justified
by
faith
in
Christ
without
any
works
of
the
Law
. . .
But
when
works
are
so
completely
cut
away
–
and
that
must
mean
that
faith
alone
justifies
–
whoever
would
speak
plainly
and
clearly
about
this
cutting
away
of
works
will
have
to
say
,
'
Faith
alone
justifies
us
,
and
not
works
'
.
"
Luther
's
translation
used
the
variant
of
German
spoken
at
the
Saxon
chancellery
,
intelligible
to
both
northern
and
southern
Germans
.
He
intended
his
vigorous
,
direct
language
to
make
the
Bible
accessible
to
everyday
Germans
,
"
for
we
are
removing
impediments
and
difficulties
so
that
other
people
may
read
it
without
hindrance
.
"
Published
at
a
time
of
rising
demand
for
German-language
publications
,
Luther
's
version
quickly
became
a
popular
and
influential
Bible
translation
.
As
such
,
it
made
a
significant
contribution
to
the
evolution
of
the
German
language
and
literature
.
Furnished
with
notes
and
prefaces
by
Luther
,
and
with
woodcuts
by
Lucas
Cranach
that
contained
anti-papal
imagery
,
it
played
a
major
role
in
the
spread
of
Luther
's
doctrine
throughout
Germany
.
The
Luther
Bible
influenced
other
vernacular
translations
,
such
as
William
Tyndale
's
English
Bible
(
1525
forward
)
,
a
precursor
of
the
King
James
Bible
.
Section
10
Hymns
Luther
was
a
prolific
hymn
writer
,
authoring
hymns
such
as
Ein
feste
Burg
ist
unser
Gott
(
A
Mighty
Fortress
Is
Our
God
)
,
based
on
Psalm
46
.
Luther
connected
high
art
and
folk
music
,
also
all
classes
,
clergy
and
laity
,
men
,
women
and
children
.
His
device
for
this
linking
was
the
singing
of
German
hymns
in
connection
with
worship
,
school
,
home
,
and
the
public
arena
.
Luther
's
1524
creedal
hymn
Wir
glauben
all
an
einen
Gott
(
We
All
Believe
in
One
True
God
)
is
a
three-stanza
confession
of
faith
prefiguring
Luther
's
1529
three-part
explanation
of
the
Apostles
'
Creed
in
the
Small
Catechism
.
Luther
's
hymn
,
adapted
and
expanded
from
an
earlier
German
creedal
hymn
,
gained
widespread
use
in
vernacular
Lutheran
liturgies
as
early
as
1525
.
Sixteenth-century
Lutheran
hymnals
also
included
Wir
glauben
all
among
the
catechetical
hymns
,
although
18th-century
hymnals
tended
to
label
the
hymn
as
Trinitarian
rather
than
catechetical
,
and
20th-century
Lutherans
rarely
use
the
hymn
because
of
the
perceived
difficulty
of
its
tune
.
Luther
's
1538
hymnic
version
of
the
Lord
's
Prayer
,
Vater
unser
im
Himmelreich
,
corresponds
exactly
to
Luther
's
explanation
of
the
prayer
in
the
Small
Catechism
,
with
one
stanza
for
each
of
the
seven
prayer
petitions
,
plus
opening
and
closing
stanzas
.
The
hymn
functioned
both
as
a
liturgical
setting
of
the
Lord
's
Prayer
and
as
a
means
of
examining
candidates
on
specific
catechism
questions
.
The
extant
manuscript
shows
multiple
revisions
,
demonstrating
Luther
's
concern
to
clarify
and
strengthen
the
text
and
to
provide
an
appropriately
prayerful
tune
.
Other
16th
-
and
20th-century
versifications
of
the
Lord
's
Prayer
have
adopted
Luther
's
tune
,
although
modern
texts
are
considerably
shorter
.
Luther
wrote
Aus
tiefer
Not
schrei
ich
zu
dir
(
From
depths
of
woe
I
cry
to
you
)
in
1523
as
a
hymnic
version
of
Psalm
130
and
sent
it
as
a
sample
to
encourage
evangelical
colleagues
to
write
psalm-hymns
for
use
in
German
worship
.
In
1524
Luther
developed
his
original
four-stanza
psalm
paraphrase
into
a
five-stanza
Reformation
hymn
that
developed
the
theme
of
"
grace
alone
"
more
fully
.
Because
it
expressed
essential
Reformation
doctrine
,
this
expanded
version
of
Aus
tiefer
Not
was
designated
as
a
regular
component
of
several
regional
Lutheran
liturgies
and
was
widely
used
at
funerals
,
including
Luther
's
own
.
Along
with
Erhart
Hegenwalt
's
hymnic
version
of
Psalm
51
,
Luther
's
expanded
hymn
was
also
adopted
for
use
with
the
fifth
part
of
Luther
's
catechism
,
concerning
confession
.
Luther
's
1540
hymn
Christ
unser
Herr
zum
Jordan
kam
(
To
Jordan
came
the
Christ
our
Lord
)
reflects
the
structure
and
substance
of
his
questions
and
answers
concerning
baptism
in
the
Small
Catechism
.
Luther
adopted
a
preexisting
Johann
Walter
tune
associated
with
a
hymnic
setting
of
Psalm
67
's
prayer
for
grace
;
Wolf
Heintz
's
four-part
setting
of
the
hymn
was
used
to
introduce
the
Lutheran
Reformation
in
Halle
in
1541
.
Preachers
and
composers
of
the
18th
century
,
including
J.
S.
Bach
,
used
this
rich
hymn
as
a
subject
for
their
own
work
,
although
its
objective
baptismal
theology
was
displaced
by
more
subjective
hymns
under
the
influence
of
late-19th-century
Lutheran
pietism
.
Luther
wrote
Nun
komm
,
der
Heiden
Heiland
(
Now
come
,
Savior
of
the
gentiles
)
based
on
Veni
redemptor
gentium
.
It
became
the
main
hymn
(
Hauptlied
)
for
Advent
.
He
transformed
A
solus
ortus
cardine
to
Christum
wir
sollen
loben
schon
(
We
should
now
praise
Christ
)
and
Veni
creator
spiritus
to
Komm
,
Gott
Schöpfer
,
Heiliger
Geist
(
Come
,
Holy
Spirit
,
Lord
God
)
.
He
wrote
two
hymns
on
the
Ten
Commandments
,
Dies
sind
die
heilgen
Zehn
Gebot
and
Mensch
,
willst
du
leben
seliglich
.
His
Gelobet
seist
du
,
Jesu
Christ
(
Praise
be
to
You
,
Jesus
Christ
)
became
the
main
hymn
for
Christmas
.
He
wrote
for
Pentecost
Nun
bitten
wir
den
heiligen
Geist
and
for
Easter
Christ
ist
erstanden
(
Christ
is
risen
)
,
based
on
Victimae
paschali
laudes
.
Luther
's
hymns
inspired
composers
to
write
music
.
Johann
Sebastian
Bach
included
several
verses
as
chorales
in
his
cantatas
and
based
chorale
cantatas
entirely
on
them
,
namely
Christ
lag
in
Todes
Banden
,
BWV
4
,
as
early
as
possibly
17
hundred
07
,
in
his
second
annual
cycle
(
17
hundred
24
to
17
hundred
25
)
Ach
Gott
,
vom
Himmel
sieh
darein
,
BWV
2
,
Christ
unser
Herr
zum
Jordan
kam
,
BWV
7
,
Nun
komm
,
der
Heiden
Heiland
,
BWV
62
,
Gelobet
seist
du
,
Jesu
Christ
,
BWV
91
,
and
Aus
tiefer
Not
schrei
ich
zu
dir
,
BWV
38
,
later
Ein
feste
Burg
ist
unser
Gott
,
BWV
80
,
and
in
17
hundred
35
Wär
Gott
nicht
mit
uns
diese
Zeit
,
BWV
14
.
Section
11
Marburg
Colloquy
and
Eucharist
controversy
In
October
1529
,
Philip
I
,
Landgrave
of
Hesse
convoked
an
assembly
of
German
and
Swiss
theologians
at
the
Marburg
Colloquy
,
to
establish
doctrinal
unity
in
the
emerging
Protestant
states
.
Agreement
was
achieved
on
fourteen
points
out
of
fifteen
,
the
exception
being
the
nature
of
the
Eucharist
–
the
sacrament
of
the
Lord
's
Supper—an
issue
crucial
to
Luther
.
The
theologians
,
including
Zwingli
,
Melanchthon
,
Martin
Bucer
,
and
Johannes
Oecolampadius
,
differed
on
the
significance
of
the
words
spoken
by
Jesus
at
the
Last
Supper
:
"
This
is
my
body
which
is
for
you
"
and
"
This
cup
is
the
new
covenant
in
my
blood
"
(
1
Corinthians
11:23–26
)
.
Luther
insisted
on
the
Real
Presence
of
the
body
and
blood
of
Christ
in
the
consecrated
bread
and
wine
,
which
he
called
the
sacramental
union
,
while
his
opponents
believed
God
to
be
only
spiritually
or
symbolically
present
.
Zwingli
,
for
example
,
denied
Jesus
's
ability
to
be
in
more
than
one
place
at
a
time
but
Luther
stressed
his
ubiquity
.
According
to
transcripts
,
the
debate
sometimes
became
confrontational
.
Citing
Jesus
's
words
"
The
flesh
profiteth
nothing
"
(
John
6.63
)
,
Zwingli
said
,
"
This
passage
breaks
your
neck
"
.
"
Do
n't
be
too
proud
,
"
Luther
retorted
,
"
German
necks
do
n't
break
that
easily
.
This
is
Hesse
,
not
Switzerland
.
"
On
his
table
Luther
wrote
the
words
"
Hoc
est
corpus
meum
"
(
"
This
is
my
body
"
)
in
chalk
,
to
continually
indicate
his
firm
stance
.
Despite
the
disagreements
on
the
Eucharist
,
the
Marburg
Colloquy
paved
the
way
for
the
signing
in
1530
of
the
Augsburg
Confession
,
and
for
the
formation
of
the
Schmalkaldic
League
the
following
year
by
leading
Protestant
nobles
such
as
John
of
Saxony
,
Philip
of
Hesse
,
and
George
,
Margrave
of
Brandenburg-Ansbach
.
The
Calvinist
Swiss
cities
,
however
,
did
not
sign
these
agreements
.
Section
12
On
the
mortality
of
the
soul
In
contrast
to
the
views
of
Calvin
and
Melanchthon
,
through
his
life
Luther
maintained
the
idea
that
the
soul
was
unconscious
in
death
,
and
from
this
Luther
came
also
to
dispute
traditional
interpretations
of
some
Bible
passages
,
such
as
the
parable
of
the
rich
man
and
Lazarus
.
This
also
led
Luther
to
reject
the
idea
of
torments
for
the
saints
:
"
It
is
enough
for
us
to
know
that
souls
do
not
leave
their
bodies
to
be
threatened
by
the
torments
and
punishments
of
hell
,
but
enter
a
prepared
bedchamber
in
which
they
sleep
in
peace
"
However
,
Luther
affirmed
the
continuation
of
one
's
personal
identity
beyond
death
.
For
example
,
in
his
Smalcald
Articles
he
described
the
saints
as
currently
residing
"
in
their
graves
and
in
heaven
.
"
Franz
August
Otto
Pieper
argues
that
Luther
's
apparent
teaching
of
"
soul
sleep
"
(
German
Seelenschlaf
)
was
a
source
of
embarrassment
to
some
later
Lutherans
,
such
as
Johann
Gerhard
.
This
was
also
the
view
of
Lessing
(
17
hundred
55
)
in
his
analysis
of
late
Lutheran
Orthodoxy
to
these
passages
.
Luther
's
Commentary
on
Genesis
contains
a
passage
which
concludes
"
...
the
soul
does
not
sleep
(
anima
non
sic
dormit
)
,
but
wakes
(
sed
vigilat
)
and
experiences
visions
"
.
Francis
Blackburne
in
17
hundred
65
argued
that
John
Jortin
misread
this
and
other
passages
from
Luther
,
while
Gottfried
Fritschel
pointed
out
in
18
hundred
67
that
it
actually
refers
to
the
soul
of
a
man
"
in
this
life
"
(
homo
enim
in
hac
vita
)
tired
from
his
daily
labour
(
defatigus
diurno
labore
)
who
at
night
enters
his
bedchamber
(
sub
noctem
intrat
in
cubiculum
suum
)
and
whose
sleep
is
interrupted
by
dreams
.
Henry
Eyster
Jacobs
'
English
translation
from
18
hundred
98
reads
:
Section
13
On
Islam
At
the
time
of
the
Marburg
Colloquy
,
Suleiman
the
Magnificent
was
besieging
Vienna
with
a
vast
Ottoman
army
.
Luther
had
argued
against
resisting
the
Turks
in
his
1518
Explanation
of
the
Ninety-five
Theses
,
provoking
accusations
of
defeatism
.
He
saw
the
Turks
as
a
scourge
sent
to
punish
Christians
by
God
,
as
agents
of
the
Biblical
apocalypse
that
would
destroy
the
antichrist
,
whom
Luther
believed
to
be
the
papacy
,
and
the
Roman
Church
.
He
consistently
rejected
the
idea
of
a
Holy
War
,
"
as
though
our
people
were
an
army
of
Christians
against
the
Turks
,
who
were
enemies
of
Christ
.
This
is
absolutely
contrary
to
Christ
's
doctrine
and
name
"
.
On
the
other
hand
,
in
keeping
with
his
doctrine
of
the
two
kingdoms
,
Luther
did
support
non-religious
war
against
the
Turks
.
In
1526
,
he
argued
in
Whether
Soldiers
can
be
in
a
State
of
Grace
that
national
defence
is
reason
for
a
just
war
.
By
1529
,
in
On
War
against
the
Turk
,
he
was
actively
urging
Emperor
Charles
V
and
the
German
people
to
fight
a
secular
war
against
the
Turks
.
He
made
clear
,
however
,
that
the
spiritual
war
against
an
alien
faith
was
separate
,
to
be
waged
through
prayer
and
repentance
.
Around
the
time
of
the
Siege
of
Vienna
,
Luther
wrote
a
prayer
for
national
deliverance
from
the
Turks
,
asking
God
to
"
give
to
our
emperor
perpetual
victory
over
our
enemies
"
.
In
1542
,
Luther
read
a
Latin
translation
of
the
Qur'an
.
He
went
on
to
produce
several
critical
pamphlets
on
the
Islamic
faith
,
which
he
called
Mohammedanism
or
the
Turk
.
Though
Luther
saw
the
Muslim
faith
as
a
tool
of
the
devil
,
he
was
indifferent
to
its
practice
:
"
Let
the
Turk
believe
and
live
as
he
will
,
just
as
one
lets
the
papacy
and
other
false
Christians
live
.
"
He
opposed
banning
the
publication
of
the
Qur'an
,
wanting
it
exposed
to
scrutiny
.
Section
14
Augsburg
Confession
Shaken
by
the
Siege
of
Vienna
,
Charles
V
convened
the
Imperial
Diet
at
Augsburg
in
1530
,
aiming
to
unite
the
empire
against
the
Turks
.
To
achieve
this
,
he
needed
first
to
resolve
the
religious
controversies
in
his
lands
,
"
considering
with
love
and
kindness
the
views
of
everybody
"
.
He
asked
for
a
statement
of
the
evangelical
case
,
and
one
was
duly
devised
by
Luther
,
Melanchthon
,
and
their
colleagues
at
Wittenberg
.
Melanchthon
drafted
the
document
,
known
as
the
Augsburg
Confession
,
and
travelled
with
the
elector
's
party
to
Augsburg
,
where
it
was
read
to
the
emperor
and
diet
on
25
June
1530
.
(
Luther
was
left
behind
at
the
Coburg
fortress
in
southern
Saxony
because
he
remained
under
the
imperial
ban
and
lacked
a
safe-conduct
to
attend
the
diet
.
)
Luther
's
writings
during
his
165
days
at
Coburg
,
including
the
Exhortation
to
all
Clergy
Assembled
at
Augsburg
,
show
that
,
unlike
Melanchthon
,
he
was
set
against
making
concessions
.
Despite
the
Confession
's
avoidance
of
strident
language
or
abuse
of
the
pope
,
the
diet
rejected
it
on
22
September
and
ordered
the
reformers
to
renounce
heresy
and
submit
to
the
control
of
the
Roman
Catholic
Church
by
the
following
April
or
face
the
imperial
army
.
That
decision
confirmed
Luther
's
belief
that
the
mission
had
been
futile
.
It
prompted
the
Lutheran
princes
to
form
a
military
alliance
,
the
Schmalkaldic
League
,
which
Luther
cautiously
supported
on
grounds
of
self-defence
in
his
Warning
to
His
Dear
German
People
of
1531
.
The
Augsburg
Confession
had
become
the
statement
of
faith
on
which
Lutherans
were
prepared
to
stand
or
fall
.
Though
a
modification
of
Luther
's
own
position
,
it
nevertheless
is
regarded
as
the
first
Lutheran
treatise
.
Section
15
Anti-Antinomianism
Early
in
1537
,
Johannes
Agricola
(1494–1566
)
–
serving
at
the
time
as
pastor
in
Luther
's
birthplace
,
Eisleben
–
preached
a
sermon
in
which
he
claimed
that
God
's
gospel
,
not
God
's
moral
law
(
the
Ten
Commandments
)
,
revealed
God
's
wrath
to
Christians
.
Based
on
this
sermon
and
others
by
Agricola
,
Luther
suspected
that
Agricola
was
behind
certain
anonymous
antinomian
theses
circulating
in
Wittenberg
.
These
theses
asserted
that
the
law
is
no
longer
to
be
taught
to
Christians
but
belonged
only
to
city
hall
.
Luther
responded
to
these
theses
with
six
series
of
theses
against
Agricola
and
the
antinomians
,
four
of
which
became
the
basis
for
disputations
between
1538
and
1540
.
He
also
responded
to
these
assertions
in
other
writings
,
such
as
his
1539
open
letter
to
C.
Güttel
Against
the
Antinomians
,
and
his
book
On
the
Councils
and
the
Church
from
the
same
year
.
In
his
theses
and
disputations
against
the
antinomians
,
Luther
reviews
and
reaffirms
,
on
the
one
hand
,
what
has
been
called
the
"
second
use
of
the
law
,
"
that
is
,
the
law
as
the
Holy
Spirit
's
tool
to
work
sorrow
over
sin
in
man
's
heart
,
thus
preparing
him
for
Christ
's
fulfillment
of
the
law
offered
in
the
gospel
.
Luther
states
that
everything
that
is
used
to
work
sorrow
over
sin
is
called
the
law
,
even
if
it
is
Christ
's
life
,
Christ
's
death
for
sin
,
or
God
's
goodness
experienced
in
creation
.
Simply
refusing
to
preach
the
Ten
Commandments
among
Christians
–
thereby
,
as
it
were
,
removing
the
three
letters
l-a-w
from
the
church
–
does
not
eliminate
the
accusing
law
.
Claiming
that
the
law
–
in
any
form
–
should
not
be
preached
to
Christians
anymore
would
be
tantamount
to
asserting
that
Christians
are
no
longer
sinners
in
themselves
and
that
the
church
consists
only
of
essentially
holy
people
.
On
the
other
hand
,
Luther
also
points
out
that
the
Ten
Commandments
–
when
considered
not
as
God
's
condemning
judgment
but
as
an
expression
of
his
eternal
will
,
that
is
,
of
the
natural
law
–
also
positively
teach
how
the
Christian
ought
to
live
.
This
has
traditionally
been
called
the
"
third
use
of
the
law
.
"
For
Luther
,
also
Christ
's
life
,
when
understood
as
an
example
,
is
nothing
more
than
an
illustration
of
the
Ten
Commandments
,
which
a
Christian
should
follow
in
his
or
her
vocations
on
a
daily
basis
.
The
Ten
Commandments
,
and
the
beginnings
of
the
renewed
life
of
Christians
accorded
to
them
by
the
sacrament
of
baptism
,
are
a
present
foreshadowing
of
the
believers
'
future
angel-like
life
in
heaven
in
the
midst
of
this
life
.
Luther
's
teaching
of
the
Ten
Commandments
,
therefore
,
has
clear
eschatological
overtones
,
which
,
characteristically
for
Luther
,
do
not
encourage
world-flight
but
direct
the
Christian
to
service
to
the
neighbor
in
the
common
,
daily
vocations
of
this
perishing
world
.
In
the
20th
century
,
there
have
been
attempts
to
show
that
the
"
third
use
of
the
law
"
was
a
typical
"
Reformed
"
doctrine
and
that
Luther
himself
never
taught
this
,
but
in
light
of
Luther
's
disputations
against
the
antinomians
and
other
texts
,
this
position
can
not
be
maintained
.
Section
16
Philip
of
Hesse
controversy
From
December
1539
,
Luther
became
implicated
in
the
bigamy
of
Philip
I
,
Landgrave
of
Hesse
,
who
wanted
to
marry
one
of
his
wife
's
ladies-in-waiting
.
Philip
solicited
the
approval
of
Luther
,
Melanchthon
,
and
Bucer
,
citing
as
a
precedent
the
polygamy
of
the
patriarchs
.
The
theologians
were
not
prepared
to
make
a
general
ruling
,
and
they
reluctantly
advised
the
landgrave
that
if
he
was
determined
,
he
should
marry
secretly
and
keep
quiet
about
the
matter
.
As
a
result
,
on
4
March
1540
,
Philip
married
a
second
wife
,
Margarethe
von
der
Sale
,
with
Melanchthon
and
Bucer
among
the
witnesses
.
However
,
Philip
was
unable
to
keep
the
marriage
secret
,
and
he
threatened
to
make
Luther
's
advice
public
.
Luther
told
him
to
"
tell
a
good
,
strong
lie
"
and
deny
the
marriage
completely
,
which
Philip
did
during
the
subsequent
public
controversy
.
In
the
view
of
Luther
's
biographer
Martin
Brecht
,
"
giving
confessional
advice
for
Philip
of
Hesse
was
one
of
the
worst
mistakes
Luther
made
,
and
,
next
to
the
landgrave
himself
,
who
was
directly
responsible
for
it
,
history
chiefly
holds
Luther
accountable
"
.
Brecht
argues
that
Luther
's
mistake
was
not
that
he
gave
private
pastoral
advice
,
but
that
he
miscalculated
the
political
implications
.
The
affair
caused
lasting
damage
to
Luther
's
reputation
.
Section
17
Anti-Judaism
and
antisemitism
Luther
wrote
about
the
Jews
throughout
his
career
,
though
only
a
few
of
his
works
dealt
with
them
directly
.
Luther
rarely
encountered
Jews
during
his
life
,
but
his
attitudes
reflected
a
theological
and
cultural
tradition
which
saw
Jews
as
a
rejected
people
guilty
of
the
murder
of
Christ
,
and
he
lived
within
a
local
community
that
had
expelled
Jews
some
ninety
years
earlier
.
He
considered
the
Jews
blasphemers
and
liars
because
they
rejected
the
divinity
of
Jesus
,
whereas
Christians
believed
Jesus
was
the
Messiah
.
At
the
same
time
,
Luther
believed
that
all
human
beings
who
set
themselves
against
God
shared
one
and
the
same
guilt
.
As
early
as
1516
,
Luther
wrote
,
"
...
[
M
]
any
people
are
proud
with
marvelous
stupidity
when
they
call
the
Jews
dogs
,
evildoers
,
or
whatever
they
like
,
while
they
too
,
and
equally
,
do
not
realize
who
or
what
they
are
in
the
sight
of
God
"
.
In
1523
,
Luther
advised
kindness
toward
the
Jews
in
That
Jesus
Christ
was
Born
a
Jew
,
but
only
with
the
aim
of
converting
them
to
Christianity
.
When
his
efforts
at
conversion
failed
,
he
grew
increasingly
bitter
toward
them
.
Luther
's
other
major
works
on
the
Jews
were
his
60,000-word
treatise
Von
den
Juden
und
Ihren
Lügen
(
On
the
Jews
and
Their
Lies
)
,
and
Vom
Schem
Hamphoras
und
vom
Geschlecht
Christi
(
On
the
Holy
Name
and
the
Lineage
of
Christ
)
,
both
published
in
1543
,
three
years
before
his
death
.
Luther
argued
that
the
Jews
were
no
longer
the
chosen
people
but
"
the
devil
's
people
"
:
he
referred
to
them
with
violent
,
vile
language
.
Luther
advocated
setting
synagogues
on
fire
,
destroying
Jewish
prayerbooks
,
forbidding
rabbis
from
preaching
,
seizing
Jews
'
property
and
money
,
and
smashing
up
their
homes
,
so
that
these
"
poisonous
envenomed
worms
"
would
be
forced
into
labour
or
expelled
"
for
all
time
"
.
In
Robert
Michael
's
view
,
Luther
's
words
"
We
are
at
fault
in
not
slaying
them
"
amounted
to
a
sanction
for
murder
.
Luther
's
"
recommendations
"
for
how
to
treat
the
Jews
was
a
clear
reference
to
the
"
sharp
mercy
"
of
Deuteronomy
13
,
the
punishments
prescribed
by
Moses
for
those
who
led
others
to
"
false
gods
"
.
Luther
spoke
out
against
the
Jews
in
Saxony
,
Brandenburg
,
and
Silesia
.
Josel
of
Rosheim
,
the
Jewish
spokesman
who
tried
to
help
the
Jews
of
Saxony
in
1537
,
later
blamed
their
plight
on
"
that
priest
whose
name
was
Martin
Luther—may
his
body
and
soul
be
bound
up
in
hell
!
—
who
wrote
and
issued
many
heretical
books
in
which
he
said
that
whoever
would
help
the
Jews
was
doomed
to
perdition
.
"
Josel
asked
the
city
of
Strasbourg
to
forbid
the
sale
of
Luther
's
anti-Jewish
works
:
they
refused
initially
,
but
relented
when
a
Lutheran
pastor
in
Hochfelden
used
a
sermon
to
urge
his
parishioners
to
murder
Jews
.
Luther
's
influence
persisted
after
his
death
.
Throughout
the
1580s
,
riots
led
to
the
expulsion
of
Jews
from
several
German
Lutheran
states
.
Luther
was
the
most
widely
read
author
of
his
generation
,
and
he
acquired
the
status
of
a
prophet
within
Germany
.
According
to
the
prevailing
view
among
historians
,
his
anti-Jewish
rhetoric
contributed
significantly
to
the
development
of
antisemitism
in
Germany
,
and
in
the
19
hundred
30s
and
19
hundred
40s
provided
an
"
ideal
underpinning
"
for
the
National
Socialists
'
attacks
on
Jews
.
Reinhold
Lewin
writes
that
"
whoever
wrote
against
the
Jews
for
whatever
reason
believed
he
had
the
right
to
justify
himself
by
triumphantly
referring
to
Luther
.
"
According
to
Michael
,
just
about
every
anti-Jewish
book
printed
in
the
Third
Reich
contained
references
to
and
quotations
from
Luther
.
Heinrich
Himmler
wrote
admiringly
of
his
writings
and
sermons
on
the
Jews
in
19
hundred
40
.
The
city
of
Nuremberg
presented
a
first
edition
of
On
the
Jews
and
their
Lies
to
Julius
Streicher
,
editor
of
the
Nazi
newspaper
Der
Stürmer
,
on
his
birthday
in
19
hundred
37
;
the
newspaper
described
it
as
the
most
radically
anti-Semitic
tract
ever
published
.
It
was
publicly
exhibited
in
a
glass
case
at
the
Nuremberg
rallies
and
quoted
in
a
54-page
explanation
of
the
Aryan
Law
by
Dr.
E.H.
Schulz
and
Dr.
R.
Frercks
.
On
17
December
19
hundred
41
,
seven
Protestant
regional
church
confederations
issued
a
statement
agreeing
with
the
policy
of
forcing
Jews
to
wear
the
yellow
badge
,
"
since
after
his
bitter
experience
Luther
had
already
suggested
preventive
measures
against
the
Jews
and
their
expulsion
from
German
territory
.
"
According
to
Daniel
Goldhagen
,
Bishop
Martin
Sasse
,
a
leading
Protestant
churchman
,
published
a
compendium
of
Luther
's
writings
shortly
after
Kristallnacht
,
for
which
Diarmaid
MacCulloch
,
Professor
of
the
History
of
the
Church
in
the
University
of
Oxford
argued
that
Luther
's
writing
was
a
"
blueprint
.
"
Sasse
applauded
the
burning
of
the
synagogues
and
the
coincidence
of
the
day
,
writing
in
the
introduction
,
"
On
10
November
19
hundred
38
,
on
Luther
's
birthday
,
the
synagogues
are
burning
in
Germany
.
"
The
German
people
,
he
urged
,
ought
to
heed
these
words
"
of
the
greatest
antisemite
of
his
time
,
the
warner
of
his
people
against
the
Jews
.
"
According
to
Professor
Dick
Geary
,
the
Nazis
won
a
larger
share
of
the
vote
in
Protestant
than
in
Catholic
areas
of
Germany
in
elections
of
19
hundred
28
to
November
19
hundred
32
.
At
the
heart
of
scholars
'
debate
about
Luther
's
influence
is
whether
it
is
anachronistic
to
view
his
work
as
a
precursor
of
the
racial
antisemitism
of
the
National
Socialists
.
Some
scholars
see
Luther
's
influence
as
limited
,
and
the
Nazis
'
use
of
his
work
as
opportunistic
.
Biographer
Martin
Brecht
points
out
that
"
There
is
a
world
of
difference
between
his
belief
in
salvation
and
a
racial
ideology
.
Nevertheless
,
his
misguided
agitation
had
the
evil
result
that
Luther
fatefully
became
one
of
the
'
church
fathers
'
of
anti-Semitism
and
thus
provided
material
for
the
modern
hatred
of
the
Jews
,
cloaking
it
with
the
authority
of
the
Reformer
.
"
Johannes
Wallmann
argues
that
Luther
's
writings
against
the
Jews
were
largely
ignored
in
the
18th
and
19th
centuries
,
and
that
there
was
no
continuity
between
Luther
's
thought
and
Nazi
ideology
.
Uwe
Siemon-Netto
agreed
,
arguing
that
it
was
because
the
Nazis
were
already
anti-Semites
that
they
revived
Luther
's
work
.
Hans
J.
Hillerbrand
agreed
that
to
focus
on
Luther
was
to
adopt
an
essentially
ahistorical
perspective
of
Nazi
antisemitism
that
ignored
other
contributory
factors
in
German
history
.
Similarly
,
Roland
Bainton
,
noted
church
historian
and
Luther
biographer
,
wrote
"
One
could
wish
that
Luther
had
died
before
ever
[
On
the
Jews
and
Their
Lies
]
was
written
.
His
position
was
entirely
religious
and
in
no
respect
racial
.
"
Other
scholars
argue
that
,
even
if
his
views
were
merely
anti-Judaic
,
their
violence
lent
a
new
element
to
the
standard
Christian
suspicion
of
Judaism
.
Ronald
Berger
writes
that
Luther
is
credited
with
"
Germanizing
the
Christian
critique
of
Judaism
and
establishing
anti-Semitism
as
a
key
element
of
German
culture
and
national
identity
.
"
Paul
Rose
argues
that
he
caused
a
"
hysterical
and
demonizing
mentality
"
about
Jews
to
enter
German
thought
and
discourse
,
a
mentality
that
might
otherwise
have
been
absent
.
Since
the
19
hundred
80s
,
Lutheran
Church
denominations
have
repudiated
Martin
Luther
's
statements
against
the
Jews
and
have
rejected
the
use
of
them
to
incite
hatred
against
Lutherans
.
Section
18
Final
years
and
death
Luther
had
been
suffering
from
ill
health
for
years
,
including
Ménière
's
disease
,
vertigo
,
fainting
,
tinnitus
,
and
a
cataract
in
one
eye
.
From
1531
to
1546
,
his
health
deteriorated
further
.
The
years
of
struggle
with
Rome
,
the
antagonisms
with
and
among
his
fellow
reformers
,
and
the
scandal
which
ensued
from
the
bigamy
of
the
Philip
of
Hesse
incident
,
in
which
Luther
had
played
a
leading
role
,
all
may
have
contributed
.
In
1536
,
he
began
to
suffer
from
kidney
and
bladder
stones
,
and
arthritis
,
and
an
ear
infection
ruptured
an
ear
drum
.
In
December
1544
,
he
began
to
feel
the
effects
of
angina
.
His
poor
physical
health
made
him
short-tempered
and
even
harsher
in
his
writings
and
comments
.
His
wife
Katharina
was
overheard
saying
,
"
Dear
husband
,
you
are
too
rude
,
"
and
he
responded
,
"
They
are
teaching
me
to
be
rude
.
"
His
last
sermon
was
delivered
at
Eisleben
,
his
place
of
birth
,
on
15
February
1546
,
three
days
before
his
death
.
It
was
"
entirely
devoted
to
the
obdurate
Jews
,
whom
it
was
a
matter
of
great
urgency
to
expel
from
all
German
territory
,
"
according
to
Léon
Poliakov
.
James
Mackinnon
writes
that
it
concluded
with
a
"
fiery
summons
to
drive
the
Jews
bag
and
baggage
from
their
midst
,
unless
they
desisted
from
their
calumny
and
their
usury
and
became
Christians
.
"
Luther
said
,
"
we
want
to
practice
Christian
love
toward
them
and
pray
that
they
convert
,
"
but
also
that
they
are
"
our
public
enemies
...
and
if
they
could
kill
us
all
,
they
would
gladly
do
so
.
And
so
often
they
do
.
"
Luther
's
final
journey
,
to
Mansfeld
,
was
taken
because
of
his
concern
for
his
siblings
'
families
continuing
in
their
father
Hans
Luther
's
copper
mining
trade
.
Their
livelihood
was
threatened
by
Count
Albrecht
of
Mansfeld
bringing
the
industry
under
his
own
control
.
The
controversy
that
ensued
involved
all
four
Mansfeld
counts
:
Albrecht
,
Philip
,
John
George
,
and
Gerhard
.
Luther
journeyed
to
Mansfeld
twice
in
late
1545
to
participate
in
the
negotiations
for
a
settlement
,
and
a
third
visit
was
needed
in
early
1546
for
their
completion
.
The
negotiations
were
successfully
concluded
on
17
February
1546
.
After
8:00
pm
,
he
experienced
chest
pains
.
When
he
went
to
his
bed
,
he
prayed
,
"
Into
your
hand
I
commit
my
spirit
;
you
have
redeemed
me
,
O
Lord
,
faithful
God
"
(
Ps.
31:5
)
,
the
common
prayer
of
the
dying
.
At
1:00
am
he
awoke
with
more
chest
pain
and
was
warmed
with
hot
towels
.
He
thanked
God
for
revealing
his
Son
to
him
in
whom
he
had
believed
.
His
companions
,
Justus
Jonas
and
Michael
Coelius
,
shouted
loudly
,
"
Reverend
father
,
are
you
ready
to
die
trusting
in
your
Lord
Jesus
Christ
and
to
confess
the
doctrine
which
you
have
taught
in
his
name
?
"
A
distinct
"
Yes
"
was
Luther
's
reply
.
An
apoplectic
stroke
deprived
him
of
his
speech
,
and
he
died
shortly
afterwards
at
2:45
am
on
18
February
1546
,
aged
62
,
in
Eisleben
,
the
city
of
his
birth
.
He
was
buried
in
the
Castle
Church
in
Wittenberg
,
beneath
the
pulpit
.
The
funeral
was
held
by
his
friends
Johannes
Bugenhagen
and
Philipp
Melanchthon
.
A
year
later
,
troops
of
Luther
's
adversary
Charles
V
,
Holy
Roman
Emperor
entered
the
town
,
but
were
ordered
by
Charles
not
to
disturb
the
grave
.
A
piece
of
paper
was
later
found
on
which
Luther
had
written
his
last
statement
.
The
statement
was
in
Latin
,
apart
from
"
We
are
beggars
,
"
which
was
in
German
.
Luther
is
honoured
on
18
February
with
a
commemoration
in
the
Lutheran
Calendar
of
Saints
and
a
feast
day
in
the
Episcopal
(
United
States
)
Calendar
of
Saints
;
in
the
Church
of
England
's
Calendar
of
Saints
he
is
commemorated
on
31
October
.
Section
19
Works
and
editions
Exegetica
opera
latina
–
Latin
exegetical
works
.
The
standard
German
edition
of
Luther
's
Latin
and
German
works
is
the
Weimarer
Ausgabe
,
indicated
by
the
abbreviation
"
WA
"
.
This
is
continued
into
"
WA
Br
"
Weimarer
Ausgabe
,
Briefwechsel
(
correspondence
)
,
"
WA
Tr
"
Weimarer
Ausgabe
,
Tischreden
(
tabletalk
)
and
"
WA
DB
"
Weimarer
Ausgaber
,
Deutsche
Bibel
(
German
Bible
)
.
Section
20
See
also
Section
21
References
Section
22
Further
reading
For
works
by
and
about
Luther
,
see
Martin
Luther
(
resources
)
or
Luther
's
works
at
Wikisource
.
Dillenberger
,
John
(
19
hundred
61
)
.
Martin
Luther
:
Selections
from
his
Writings
.
Garden
City
,
NY
:
Doubleday
.
OCLC
165808
.
Lull
,
Timothy
(
19
hundred
89
)
.
Martin
Luther
:
Selections
from
his
Writings
.
Minneapolis
:
Fortress
.
ISBN
0-8006-3680-5
.
Luther
,
M.
The
Bondage
of
the
Will
.
Eds
.
J.
I.
Packer
and
O.
R.
Johnson
.
Old
Tappan
,
N.J.:
Revell
,
19
hundred
57
.
OCLC
22724565
.
Luther
's
Works
,
55
vols
.
Eds
.
H.
T.
Lehman
and
J.
Pelikan
.
St
Louis
Missouri
,
and
Philadelphia
,
Pennsylvania
,
19
hundred
55–86
.
Also
on
CD-ROM
.
Minneapolis
and
St
Louis
:
Fortress
Press
and
Concordia
Publishing
House
,
2002
.
Reu
,
Johann
Michael
Thirty-five
Years
of
Luther
Research
Chicago
:
Wartburg
Publishing
House
,
19
hundred
17
.